Isotopes are atoms of the same element (same atomic number, same number of protons) but different mass numbers due to varying number of neutrons. For example, ¹²C, ¹³C, ¹⁴C. Their chemical properties are similar but physical properties (mass, density, rate of diffusion) differ. Isobars have same mass number but different atomic numbers.
Explanation:
Magnesium loses two electrons to achieve noble gas configuration (Mg → Mg²⁺), so its electrovalency is +2. In MgCl₂, Mg²⁺ and two Cl⁻. Electrovalency is the charge on the ion. Covalency is number of covalent bonds. For Group 2 metals, electrovalency is always +2 (loss of 2 electrons).
Explanation:
Graphite mixed with clay forms pencil 'lead'. Its layered structure marks paper. Diamond is used in cutting, fullerene in nanotechnology, charcoal in filters and fuel.
Explanation:
Aluminium is highly reactive; its oxide cannot be reduced by carbon. Hall-Héroult process electrolyzes alumina dissolved in molten cryolite (Na₃AlF₆) using carbon anodes.
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