Explanation:
Ionic (electrovalent) bond involves complete transfer of one or more valence electrons. Example: Na → Na⁺ + e⁻, Cl + e⁻ → Cl⁻, forming NaCl. Covalent bond shares electrons; coordinate bond is a special covalent bond where one atom donates both electrons.
Explanation:
Portland cement is primarily made by heating a mixture of limestone (calcium carbonate) and clay (aluminosilicates) in a kiln at about 1450°C to form clinker. A small amount of gypsum is then added to the clinker to control the setting time, but limestone and clay are the main raw materials.
Explanation:
The thermite process involves the reduction of a metal oxide by aluminum powder, which is highly exothermic. It is used to extract metals like chromium, manganese, and iron from their oxides (e.g., Cr2O3 + 2Al -> 2Cr + Al2O3). It is also practically used for welding iron railway tracks.
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