Internal forces cancel in pairs (third law), so net external force = 0 ⇒ dp/dt = 0 (second law) ⇒ momentum constant. Memory aid: 'Momentum conservation ⇔ no external force ⇔ action-reaction pairs'. Mechanics foundation frequently tested in competitive exams.
Explanation:
The total energy of an electron in a hydrogen-like atom in the nth orbit is strictly negative and given by the mathematical formula E_n = -13.6 Z^2 / n^2 (in eV). This formula demonstrates that the total energy is inversely proportional to the square of the principal quantum number (n^2).
According to Brewster's Law, when unpolarized light is incident on a transparent medium at the polarizing angle (Brewster's angle), the reflected and refracted rays are:
Explanation:
Brewster's Law states that when light hits a dielectric boundary at a specific angle of incidence (Brewster's angle, theta_p), the reflected light is completely plane-polarized. At this exact geometric condition, the angle between the reflected ray and the refracted (transmitted) ray is strictly 90 degrees.
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